Equality before the law (aequalitas)

Meaning: All persons shall be treated equally by law and courts.
Explanation: Modern constitutionalism requires non-discrimination and equal protection; this principle limits arbitrary state action and underpins claims for affirmative measures where inequality is structural. Courts often balance formal equality (same rules) with substantive equality (addressing historical disadvantage).
Example: A university scholarship program that reserves seats to redress past exclusion of women in STEM pursues substantive equality.